METHODS AND CONTENT OF TECHNICAL PHILSOPHY (PART
ONE)
A. METHODS OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY
a. Analytical Method (The Rational
Method)- (ANM
It emphasizes
the need for logical
and systematic thinking. Its greatly interested in logic being the
art of correct
reasoning. It consists of analysis(breaking apart) but culminates in synthesis(bringing together). It aims at arriving at
a clear understanding(clarity of thought). Such thinking must not be
haphazard or confusing; it should be clear, making the necessary distinctions
separating clearly what is essential, what matters from what is accidental and of less
importance. It is classified as primarily analytical thinking because it
cuts an issue into parts, analyses concepts and statements. In addition, the
method seeks to analyse concepts, statements and the language
used in different contexts in order to clarify and justify meanings. Philosophical
synthesis has to do with putting together the various parts of an idea to form
a whole. It is used to complement philosophical analysis. Where else
analysis breaks
an issue into small parts, synthesis brings together the parts. The ultimate end is
to see something in its totality, see the inter-relationship and the overall
framework. The limitation with the analytic method is its sole reliance on
mind as the source of knowledge neglecting ordinary sense experiences. Rational
analysis is thus regarded as idealists who do not live
in the real world.
Sample analysis
can involve breaking aside of arguments/issues by using Elements of Reasoning
(EOR) i. e:
1)
Purpose
2)
Questions
3)
Points
of view
4)
Information
5)
Inferences
6)
Concepts
7)
Implications
8)
Assumptions
b.
The Speculative Method (Creativity)-SPM
Also called the metaphysical
methodology. To speculate is to make an
intelligent/rational guess. It endeavors to challenge
the human mind as far as possible, to its ultimate limits in trying to
understand what is apparently incomprehensible. Man is not satisfied
with knowing what happens to him, he also wants to know why. Basic issues of concern in speculation include difficult
topics life like; death, suffering happiness, God. There is no simple answer and
many people explain or clarify them in religious terms believing religion will give the final
answer. Philosophers however prefer to explain these issues by
use of human reason; they want to challenge the
human mind as far as possible in trying to understand the incomprehensible.
Speculation is utilized in a research hypothesis.
d.
Phenomenological Method- PHM
The term
phenomenology originated from the Greek word ‘phenomenon’ meaning appearance and logia
meaning knowledge. It designates the description or study of appearance
especially if the appearances are sustained
and penetrating. It considers the actual staring point of investigation to be the actual things as
they appear, in their essential reality through experience. Things
will appear different from one person to another. A philosopher’s concern is
not the differences
but to discover the underlying meaning and thus arrive at a deeper
understanding of phenomena( ie. noumena). By reflecting on an
everyday human experience e.g. Of pain, joy, fear, frustration, a philosopher
is able to explain the experience in concrete terms indicating in which manner
the experience affects one’s life, whole being or existence. It involves a
non-biased, non-prejudiced stance in examining phenomenon. Here, preconceived
theoretical speculations are abandoned.
d.
Critical Method -CRM
The term
‘critical’ is derived from a Greek verb Krinein meaning to judge according to some set standards.
What? It involves subjecting of values, facts,
principles, conversations and assumptions; usually taken for granted to severe (socratic)
questioning. Why? This is meant
to encourage honesty
of thought and protect man from Pathogenic
tendencies of the human mind (PTM) such as fanaticism and hypocrisy,
intolerance and dogmatism, slogans and ideologies in order to liberate man from
narrow mindedness. This method is also called the Socratic Method. It is liberating and
constructive in the sense that it seeks to evaluate, to judge things
in the light of clear and distinct ideas.
A sample
Critical method commonly begins with Analysis (questioning along the Elements of
Reasoning- EOR) Evaluation
(questioning along Universal Intellectual Standards (UIS) with a clear
intention of Creating
new thinking and self improvement.
Analysis
(EOR)
1)
Purpose
2)
Questions
3)
Points
of view
4)
Information
5)
Inferences
6)
Concepts
7)
Implications
8)
Assumptions
Evaluation (UIS))
1) Clarity
2) Accuracy
3) Depth
4) Breadth
5) Logic
6) Significance
7) Relevance
8) Precision
Essential
traits of Improve mind (ETM
1) Intellectual Integrity
2) Intellectual humility
3) Intellectual Sense of justice
4) Intellectual Perseverance
5) Intellectual fair-mindedness
6) Intellectual confidence in reason
7) Intellectual courage
8) Intellectual empathy
9) Intellectual autonomy
NB: Critical method improves critical
thinking by reducing the following Pathogenic Human Tendencies (PTM))
1. Egocentric memory: the
natural tendency to forget evidence and information which does not support our
thinking and to remember evidence and information which does.
2. Egocentric myopia: the
natural tendency to think in absolute terms within an overly narrow point of
view.
3. Egocentric infallibility: the
natural tendency to think that our beliefs are true because we believe them.
4. Egocentric righteousness: the
natural tendency to feel superior in the light of our confidence
that we are in the possession of ‘the truth’.
5. Egocentric hypocrisy: the
natural tendency to ignore flagrant inconsistencies between what we profess to
believe and the actual beliefs our behaviour implies, or inconsistencies
between the standards to which we hold ourselves and those to which we expect
others to adhere.
6. Egocentric oversimplification: the
natural tendency to ignore real and important complexities in the world in
favour of simplistic notions when consideration of those complexities would
require us to modify our beliefs or values.
7. Egocentric blindness: the natural
tendency not to notice facts or evidence which contradict our favoured beliefs
or values.
8. Egocentric immediacy: the
natural tendency to over-generalize immediate feelings and experiences--so that
when one event in our life is highly favourable or unfavourable, all of life
seems either favourable or unfavourable.
9. Egocentric absurdity: the natural tendency to fail to notice
thinking which has absurd consequences, when noticing it would force us to
rethink our position.
EDUCATIONAL
NOTES FROM PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS
a. Critical method
1. Critical Method of Philosophy engenders and propagates critical thinking
among learners, teachers and other Educators.
2. Daily Educational decisions are always based on some criteria which act
as bases for Educational judgment for instance ranking of students, appraisal
of teachers, establishing of programs.
3. Educational evaluation: Marking of examinations are based criteria
referred to as Marking schemes/marking guides.
4. Research: A proper research is measured against elements such as data
collection, sample sizing, literature review among others, all of which are
derivatives of the critical methodology.
5. Critical method is also one of the most popular research methods in
Educational research, especially in Educational foundations.
b. Analytical Method (The Rational Method)
1. Analysis as one
of the high order thinking is not only used in research but also in examination
as part of interrogating learner's abilities to go beyond the given case. For
instance a well balance d assessment tests, in evoke the spirit of and the
ability to mentally en entertain the process of breaking complex educational
realities into atomic realities.
2. Analytic method is crucial in simplifying and clarifying Educational
policies and documents.
3. Analysis is also used in sciences as methods of experimental
investigation
4. Curriculum reviews and implementation are always sujected to analysis.
c. The
Speculative Method (Creativity).
1.
Use
to enhance creativity of learner's thought processes and imagination.
2.
Necessary
for Heutagogical and andragogical learning
3.
Religious
education partially holds water due
to speculations
d. Phenomenological Method
1.
Observation
of reality as is used in natural and social sciences for investigation
2.
Participatory
data collection is based on Phenomenology
B. CONTENT OF
TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY
(BASIC SCHOLASTIC
BRANCHES OF TECHNICAL PHILOSOPHY)
These
are:
I.
Epistemology-Study of Knowledge
II. Axiology-
Value theory
III.
Metaphysics- Study of reality
IV. Logic-Theory
of reasoning/Philosophers tool box
I. EPISTEMOLOGY
1. What is Epistemology?
This is the
philosophical study of knowledge. Epistemology is derived from two Greek words:
episteme
(knowledge) and logia (study). It deals with philosophical
reflection on issues related to knowledge. Epistemology does not deal with
factual knowledge such as that which socio-sciences are involved in.
Empirical sciences like Psychology and sociology study issues by describing in
a factual manner what they have observed about human knowledge e.g. in
cognitive development, a Psychologist will talk about how it differs in
relation to age, individual and the society. The philosopher on the other
hand will not inform on facts and try to justify as done in hard sciences;
instead, he will
think before and after the scientist does his work thereby
challenging the scientist. Epistemology distinguishes clearly between rationalism (which stresses the role of
intellect in knowledge acquisition) and empiricism
(pays attention to sense experience).
It studies
the nature, sources and validity of knowledge. It seeks to answer questions
like: Among the questions that Epistemology asks include:
What is knowledge?
How do we know?
What is truth?
What can we really know/
What
does it mean to say that I know something?
What are the sources of knowledge?
2. Of what relevance to Education
To the extent
that education has a cognitive dimension, it is an epistemological activity. Epistemology in
Education is exhibited in curriculum content areas (What knowledge is there to
be acquired?), in instructional methods (How do we come to know?), in Educational
assessment (What does it mean to say that I know something/What is truth), in
the role of the teacher and teaching resources(What are the sources of
knowledge)……
II. AXIOLOGY
1. What is Axiology?
The term
Axiology is derived from Greek words and axia (values)
and logos (study) It is the philosophical/rational study of values.
2.
Sub-branches of Axiology
a.
Ethics or moral philosophy – reflects on the origin and nature of moral
values: meaning of what is right and wrong. This is the most popular branch of
Axiology.
b. Aesthetics
– philosophical study of artistic values. Interested in meaning of beauty and
harmony and art.
c. Social
and cultural philosophy – study of values related to societies and cultures
d. Political
philosophy – deals with study of politics, governance etc.
3. Categories of values studied under
Axiology
The
philosophical study of values is restricted to the prescriptive domains. Values
fall under three categories:
a. Objective–values
considered being universal (good, truth, beauty, freedom, love).
b. Relative – values that
depends on personal preference.
c. Hierarchical – ordering values from the least desirable to the most
desirable.
4. Axiology and Education
Education is a
value laden activity. R. S. Peters, Njoroge
&Benaars, Ducassan and other educational stake holders exclude a
value-less conception education from their definition of Education. Different
disciplines, educational aims methods and players in education have strong
groundings in value theory. Consider for instance teacher code of ethics and
conduct, normative aims of education in government policies, school rules,
class arrangement, uniforms, etc
III.
METAPHYSICS
1. What is Metaphysics?
1.
This
term refers to what goes beyond the physics/nature.. It deals with questions,
things or concerns that lie after or beyond the physical world of sense
experience. It is the general investigation into the fundamental nature
of all reality.
2. Subdivisions of Metaphysics
a.
Cosmology: the study of the universe (cosmos). It
has to do with the origin and nature meaning of the universe. This is done
rationally.
b.
Theodicy: rational investigation of the supernatural.
It belongs to the field of theology where religious concepts and beliefs are
assessed.
c.
Rational or philosophical psychology: philosophy of
the mind. It investigates into the intricate processes of perceiving,
imagining, remembering, feeling, understanding, willing. It attempts to solve
the mind/body problem; their composition, nature and relationship e.g. can mind
survive destruction of the body?
d.
Ontology: the philosophical study of ‘being’.
What is the meaning of existence? What comprises matter? What is man/woman?
What is the essence of being? The meaning of Being: Anything Whatsoever that is
or exists. Modes of Being : Physical/Material being, Spiritual being
3. First
Principles of Metaphysics
i.
Principle
of Non Contradiction: A thing X cannot at the time be and not be
ii.
Principle
of Identity: Every being is determined
in itself, is one with itself, and is consistent in itself
iii.
Principle
of Intelligibility: Everything that is, in so far as it is , is intelligible
iv.
Principle
of Causality: Whatever comes to be has a cause
v.
Principle
of Finality: Every agents acts //All beings when acting tend to some definite
effect
vi.
Principle
of the Excluded middle: There cannot be an intermediate between contradictions
vii.
Principle
of
Sufficient Reason: Everything that exists has sufficient reason for its
existence
4. Principles
of Being:
i. Causality and Participation:
a. Causality is that from which something
else proceeds with dependency in being.
There are 4 Types of causes :
v
Efficient cause: That
by which any change is brought about in order of execution in order of
execution.
v Material cause; That out which a new being arises-matter in regard
to form
v Formal cause: The act by which a material substratum is determined towards a new being
v
Final cause: That
because of which some is or becomes
b. Participation; structural dependence of
many beings on the one being. it means
to receive a part of what belongs to another fully and so merely sharing
in it.
ii. Essence
and Existence: Existence is the act whereby a thing is present in nature or
in mind. Essence is mode or manner according to which really might be fashioned
iii. Potency
and Act: Potency is the aptitude in a being to receive some or perform an act . Act is the fully present
realization of Potency.
5. Metaphysics and Education
Education
as an existent reality is falls under the wide world of metaphysics-which is
the investigation of all reality. All
Educational content areas can be broadly classified under the branches of
Metaphysics eg Physical sciences fall under cosmology(the study of the material
universe), Social Sciences, mathematics, logic fall under Rational
psychology/anthropology(the study of body mind relationship), Humanities and
religion fall under Theodicy(the study of God) and its derivatives. Ontology
(study of all being) is the mother of all disciplines. Principles of Metaphysics
and Principles of Being can be used to explain any educational procedures,
theory and praxis.
